Crypto Node.js v4.0.0 Manual & Documentation

Node.js (1)

- About these Docs
- Synopsis
- Assertion Testing
- Buffer
- C/C++ Addons
- Child Processes
- Cluster
- Console
- Crypto
- Debugger
- DNS
- Domain
- Errors
- Events
- File System
- Globals
- HTTP
- HTTPS
- Modules
- Net
- OS
- Path
- Process
- Punycode
- Query Strings
- Readline
- REPL
- Stream
- String Decoder
- Timers
- TLS/SSL
- TTY
- UDP/Datagram
- URL
- Utilities
- V8
- VM
- ZLIB

# Crypto#

    Stability: 2 - Stable

Use `require('crypto')` to access this module.

The crypto module offers a way of encapsulating secure credentials to be used as part of a secure HTTPS net or http connection.

It also offers a set of wrappers for OpenSSL's hash, hmac, cipher, decipher, sign and verify methods.

## crypto.setEngine(engine[, flags])#

Load and set engine for some/all OpenSSL functions (selected by flags).

`engine` could be either an id or a path to the engine's shared library.

`flags` is optional and has `ENGINE_METHOD_ALL` value by default. It could take one of or mix of following flags (defined in `constants` module):

- `ENGINE_METHOD_RSA`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_DSA`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_DH`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_RAND`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_ECDH`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_ECDSA`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_CIPHERS`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_DIGESTS`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_STORE`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_PKEY_METH`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_PKEY_ASN1_METH`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_ALL`
- `ENGINE_METHOD_NONE`

## crypto.getCiphers()#

Returns an array with the names of the supported ciphers.

Example:

    var ciphers = crypto.getCiphers();
    console.log(ciphers); // ['aes-128-cbc', 'aes-128-ccm', ...]

## crypto.getHashes()#

Returns an array with the names of the supported hash algorithms.

Example:

    var hashes = crypto.getHashes();
    console.log(hashes); // ['sha', 'sha1', 'sha1WithRSAEncryption', ...]

## crypto.getCurves()#

Returns an array with the names of the supported elliptic curves.

Example:

    var curves = crypto.getCurves();
    console.log(curves); // ['secp256k1', 'secp384r1', ...]

## crypto.createCredentials(details)#

    Stability: 0 - Deprecated: Use tls.createSecureContext instead.

Creates a credentials object, with the optional details being a dictionary with keys:

- `pfx` : A string or buffer holding the PFX or PKCS12 encoded private key, certificate and CA certificates
- `key` : A string holding the PEM encoded private key
- `passphrase` : A string of passphrase for the private key or pfx
- `cert` : A string holding the PEM encoded certificate
- `ca` : Either a string or list of strings of PEM encoded CA certificates to trust.
- `crl` : Either a string or list of strings of PEM encoded CRLs (Certificate Revocation List)
- `ciphers`: A string describing the ciphers to use or exclude. Consult http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/ciphers.html#CIPHER_LIST_FORMAT for details on the format.

If no 'ca' details are given, then Node.js will use the default publicly trusted list of CAs as given in

http://mxr.mozilla.org/mozilla/source/security/nss/lib/ckfw/builtins/certdata.txt.

## crypto.createHash(algorithm)#

Creates and returns a hash object, a cryptographic hash with the given algorithm which can be used to generate hash digests.

`algorithm` is dependent on the available algorithms supported by the version of OpenSSL on the platform. Examples are `'sha1'`, `'md5'`, `'sha256'`, `'sha512'`, etc. On recent releases, `openssl list-message-digest-algorithms` will display the available digest algorithms.

Example: this program that takes the sha1 sum of a file

    var filename = process.argv[2];
    var crypto = require('crypto');
    var fs = require('fs');

    var shasum = crypto.createHash('sha1');

    var s = fs.ReadStream(filename);
    s.on('data', function(d) {
      shasum.update(d);
    });

    s.on('end', function() {
      var d = shasum.digest('hex');
      console.log(d + '  ' + filename);
    });

## Class: Hash#

The class for creating hash digests of data.

It is a stream that is both readable and writable. The written data is used to compute the hash. Once the writable side of the stream is ended, use the `read()` method to get the computed hash digest. The legacy `update` and `digest` methods are also supported.

Returned by `crypto.createHash`.

### hash.update(data[, input_encoding])#

Updates the hash content with the given `data`, the encoding of which is given in `input_encoding` and can be `'utf8'`, `'ascii'` or `'binary'`. If no encoding is provided, and the input is a string, an encoding of `'binary'` is enforced. If `data` is a `Buffer` then `input_encoding` is ignored.

This can be called many times with new data as it is streamed.

### hash.digest([encoding])#

Calculates the digest of all of the passed data to be hashed. The `encoding` can be `'hex'`, `'binary'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Note: `hash` object can not be used after `digest()` method has been called.

## crypto.createHmac(algorithm, key)#

Creates and returns a hmac object, a cryptographic hmac with the given algorithm and key.

It is a stream that is both readable and writable. The written data is used to compute the hmac. Once the writable side of the stream is ended, use the `read()` method to get the computed digest. The legacy `update` and `digest` methods are also supported.

`algorithm` is dependent on the available algorithms supported by OpenSSL - see createHash above. `key` is the hmac key to be used.

## Class: Hmac#

Class for creating cryptographic hmac content.

Returned by `crypto.createHmac`.

### hmac.update(data)#

Update the hmac content with the given `data`. This can be called many times with new data as it is streamed.

### hmac.digest([encoding])#

Calculates the digest of all of the passed data to the hmac. The `encoding` can be `'hex'`, `'binary'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Note: `hmac` object can not be used after `digest()` method has been called.

## crypto.createCipher(algorithm, password)#

Creates and returns a cipher object, with the given algorithm and password.

`algorithm` is dependent on OpenSSL, examples are `'aes192'`, etc. On recent releases, `openssl list-cipher-algorithms` will display the available cipher algorithms. `password` is used to derive key and IV, which must be a `'binary'` encoded string or a buffer.

It is a stream that is both readable and writable. The written data is used to compute the hash. Once the writable side of the stream is ended, use the `read()` method to get the enciphered contents. The legacy `update` and `final` methods are also supported.

Note: `createCipher` derives keys with the OpenSSL function EVP_BytesToKey with the digest algorithm set to MD5, one iteration, and no salt. The lack of salt allows dictionary attacks as the same password always creates the same key. The low iteration count and non-cryptographically secure hash algorithm allow passwords to be tested very rapidly.

In line with OpenSSL's recommendation to use pbkdf2 instead of EVP_BytesToKey it is recommended you derive a key and iv yourself with crypto.pbkdf2 and to then use createCipheriv() to create the cipher stream.

## crypto.createCipheriv(algorithm, key, iv)#

Creates and returns a cipher object, with the given algorithm, key and iv.

`algorithm` is the same as the argument to `createCipher()`. `key` is the raw key used by the algorithm. `iv` is an initialization vector.

`key` and `iv` must be `'binary'` encoded strings or buffers.

## Class: Cipher#

Class for encrypting data.

Returned by `crypto.createCipher` and `crypto.createCipheriv`.

Cipher objects are streams that are both readable and writable. The written plain text data is used to produce the encrypted data on the readable side. The legacy `update` and `final` methods are also supported.

### cipher.update(data[, input_encoding][, output_encoding])#

Updates the cipher with `data`, the encoding of which is given in `input_encoding` and can be `'utf8'`, `'ascii'` or `'binary'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected. If `data` is a `Buffer` then `input_encoding` is ignored.

The `output_encoding` specifies the output format of the enciphered data, and can be `'binary'`, `'base64'` or `'hex'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Returns the enciphered contents, and can be called many times with new data as it is streamed.

### cipher.final([output_encoding])#

Returns any remaining enciphered contents, with `output_encoding` being one of: `'binary'`, `'base64'` or `'hex'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Note: `cipher` object can not be used after `final()` method has been called.

### cipher.setAutoPadding(auto_padding=true)#

You can disable automatic padding of the input data to block size. If `auto_padding` is false, the length of the entire input data must be a multiple of the cipher's block size or `final` will fail. Useful for non-standard padding, e.g. using `0x0` instead of PKCS padding. You must call this before `cipher.final`.

### cipher.getAuthTag()#

For authenticated encryption modes (currently supported: GCM), this method returns a `Buffer` that represents the authentication tag that has been computed from the given data. Should be called after encryption has been completed using the `final` method!

### cipher.setAAD(buffer)#

For authenticated encryption modes (currently supported: GCM), this method sets the value used for the additional authenticated data (AAD) input parameter.

## crypto.createDecipher(algorithm, password)#

Creates and returns a decipher object, with the given algorithm and key. This is the mirror of the createCipher() above.

## crypto.createDecipheriv(algorithm, key, iv)#

Creates and returns a decipher object, with the given algorithm, key and iv. This is the mirror of the createCipheriv() above.

## Class: Decipher#

Class for decrypting data.

Returned by `crypto.createDecipher` and `crypto.createDecipheriv`.

Decipher objects are streams that are both readable and writable. The written enciphered data is used to produce the plain-text data on the the readable side. The legacy `update` and `final` methods are also supported.

### decipher.update(data[, input_encoding][, output_encoding])#

Updates the decipher with `data`, which is encoded in `'binary'`, `'base64'` or `'hex'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected. If `data` is a `Buffer` then `input_encoding` is ignored.

The `output_decoding` specifies in what format to return the deciphered plaintext: `'binary'`, `'ascii'` or `'utf8'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### decipher.final([output_encoding])#

Returns any remaining plaintext which is deciphered, with `output_encoding` being one of: `'binary'`, `'ascii'` or `'utf8'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Note: `decipher` object can not be used after `final()` method has been called.

### decipher.setAutoPadding(auto_padding=true)#

You can disable auto padding if the data has been encrypted without standard block padding to prevent `decipher.final` from checking and removing it. This will only work if the input data's length is a multiple of the ciphers block size. You must call this before streaming data to `decipher.update`.

### decipher.setAuthTag(buffer)#

For authenticated encryption modes (currently supported: GCM), this method must be used to pass in the received authentication tag. If no tag is provided or if the ciphertext has been tampered with, `final` will throw, thus indicating that the ciphertext should be discarded due to failed authentication.

### decipher.setAAD(buffer)#

For authenticated encryption modes (currently supported: GCM), this method sets the value used for the additional authenticated data (AAD) input parameter.

## crypto.createSign(algorithm)#

Creates and returns a signing object, with the given algorithm. On recent OpenSSL releases, `openssl list-public-key-algorithms` will display the available signing algorithms. Examples are `'RSA-SHA256'`.

## Class: Sign#

Class for generating signatures.

Returned by `crypto.createSign`.

Sign objects are writable streams. The written data is used to generate the signature. Once all of the data has been written, the `sign` method will return the signature. The legacy `update` method is also supported.

### sign.update(data)#

Updates the sign object with data. This can be called many times with new data as it is streamed.

### sign.sign(private_key[, output_format])#

Calculates the signature on all the updated data passed through the sign.

`private_key` can be an object or a string. If `private_key` is a string, it is treated as the key with no passphrase.

`private_key`:

- `key` : A string holding the PEM encoded private key
- `passphrase` : A string of passphrase for the private key

Returns the signature in `output_format` which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

Note: `sign` object can not be used after `sign()` method has been called.

## crypto.createVerify(algorithm)#

Creates and returns a verification object, with the given algorithm. This is the mirror of the signing object above.

## Class: Verify#

Class for verifying signatures.

Returned by `crypto.createVerify`.

Verify objects are writable streams. The written data is used to validate against the supplied signature. Once all of the data has been written, the `verify` method will return true if the supplied signature is valid. The legacy `update` method is also supported.

### verifier.update(data)#

Updates the verifier object with data. This can be called many times with new data as it is streamed.

### verifier.verify(object, signature[, signature_format])#

Verifies the signed data by using the `object` and `signature`. `object` is a string containing a PEM encoded object, which can be one of RSA public key, DSA public key, or X.509 certificate. `signature` is the previously calculated signature for the data, in the `signature_format` which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is specified, then a buffer is expected.

Returns true or false depending on the validity of the signature for the data and public key.

Note: `verifier` object can not be used after `verify()` method has been called.

## crypto.createDiffieHellman(prime_length[, generator])#

Creates a Diffie-Hellman key exchange object and generates a prime of `prime_length` bits and using an optional specific numeric `generator`. If no `generator` is specified, then `2` is used.

## crypto.createDiffieHellman(prime[, prime_encoding][, generator][, generator_encoding])#

Creates a Diffie-Hellman key exchange object using the supplied `prime` and an optional specific `generator`. `generator` can be a number, string, or Buffer. If no `generator` is specified, then `2` is used. `prime_encoding` and `generator_encoding` can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no `prime_encoding` is specified, then a Buffer is expected for `prime`. If no `generator_encoding` is specified, then a Buffer is expected for `generator`.

## Class: DiffieHellman#

The class for creating Diffie-Hellman key exchanges.

Returned by `crypto.createDiffieHellman`.

### diffieHellman.verifyError#

A bit field containing any warnings and/or errors as a result of a check performed during initialization. The following values are valid for this property (defined in `constants` module):

- `DH_CHECK_P_NOT_SAFE_PRIME`
- `DH_CHECK_P_NOT_PRIME`
- `DH_UNABLE_TO_CHECK_GENERATOR`
- `DH_NOT_SUITABLE_GENERATOR`

### diffieHellman.generateKeys([encoding])#

Generates private and public Diffie-Hellman key values, and returns the public key in the specified encoding. This key should be transferred to the other party. Encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.computeSecret(other_public_key[, input_encoding][, output_encoding])#

Computes the shared secret using `other_public_key` as the other party's public key and returns the computed shared secret. Supplied key is interpreted using specified `input_encoding`, and secret is encoded using specified `output_encoding`. Encodings can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If the input encoding is not provided, then a buffer is expected.

If no output encoding is given, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.getPrime([encoding])#

Returns the Diffie-Hellman prime in the specified encoding, which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.getGenerator([encoding])#

Returns the Diffie-Hellman generator in the specified encoding, which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.getPublicKey([encoding])#

Returns the Diffie-Hellman public key in the specified encoding, which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.getPrivateKey([encoding])#

Returns the Diffie-Hellman private key in the specified encoding, which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### diffieHellman.setPublicKey(public_key[, encoding])#

Sets the Diffie-Hellman public key. Key encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected.

### diffieHellman.setPrivateKey(private_key[, encoding])#

Sets the Diffie-Hellman private key. Key encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected.

## crypto.getDiffieHellman(group_name)#

Creates a predefined Diffie-Hellman key exchange object. The supported groups are: `'modp1'`, `'modp2'`, `'modp5'` (defined in RFC 2412) and `'modp14'`, `'modp15'`, `'modp16'`, `'modp17'`, `'modp18'` (defined in RFC 3526). The returned object mimics the interface of objects created by crypto.createDiffieHellman() above, but will not allow to change the keys (with diffieHellman.setPublicKey() for example). The advantage of using this routine is that the parties don't have to generate nor exchange group modulus beforehand, saving both processor and communication time.

Example (obtaining a shared secret):

    var crypto = require('crypto');
    var alice = crypto.getDiffieHellman('modp5');
    var bob = crypto.getDiffieHellman('modp5');

    alice.generateKeys();
    bob.generateKeys();

    var alice_secret = alice.computeSecret(bob.getPublicKey(), null, 'hex');
    var bob_secret = bob.computeSecret(alice.getPublicKey(), null, 'hex');

    /* alice_secret and bob_secret should be the same */
    console.log(alice_secret == bob_secret);

## crypto.createECDH(curve_name)#

Creates an Elliptic Curve (EC) Diffie-Hellman key exchange object using a predefined curve specified by the `curve_name` string. Use getCurves() to obtain a list of available curve names. On recent releases, `openssl ecparam -list_curves` will also display the name and description of each available elliptic curve.

## Class: ECDH#

The class for creating EC Diffie-Hellman key exchanges.

Returned by `crypto.createECDH`.

### ECDH.generateKeys([encoding[, format]])#

Generates private and public EC Diffie-Hellman key values, and returns the public key in the specified format and encoding. This key should be transferred to the other party.

Format specifies point encoding and can be `'compressed'`, `'uncompressed'`, or `'hybrid'`. If no format is provided - the point will be returned in `'uncompressed'` format.

Encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### ECDH.computeSecret(other_public_key[, input_encoding][, output_encoding])#

Computes the shared secret using `other_public_key` as the other party's public key and returns the computed shared secret. Supplied key is interpreted using specified `input_encoding`, and secret is encoded using specified `output_encoding`. Encodings can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If the input encoding is not provided, then a buffer is expected.

If no output encoding is given, then a buffer is returned.

### ECDH.getPublicKey([encoding[, format]])#

Returns the EC Diffie-Hellman public key in the specified encoding and format.

Format specifies point encoding and can be `'compressed'`, `'uncompressed'`, or `'hybrid'`. If no format is provided - the point will be returned in `'uncompressed'` format.

Encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### ECDH.getPrivateKey([encoding])#

Returns the EC Diffie-Hellman private key in the specified encoding, which can be `'binary'`, `'hex'`, or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is returned.

### ECDH.setPublicKey(public_key[, encoding])#

Sets the EC Diffie-Hellman public key. Key encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected.

### ECDH.setPrivateKey(private_key[, encoding])#

Sets the EC Diffie-Hellman private key. Key encoding can be `'binary'`, `'hex'` or `'base64'`. If no encoding is provided, then a buffer is expected.

Example (obtaining a shared secret):

    var crypto = require('crypto');
    var alice = crypto.createECDH('secp256k1');
    var bob = crypto.createECDH('secp256k1');

    alice.generateKeys();
    bob.generateKeys();

    var alice_secret = alice.computeSecret(bob.getPublicKey(), null, 'hex');
    var bob_secret = bob.computeSecret(alice.getPublicKey(), null, 'hex');

    /* alice_secret and bob_secret should be the same */
    console.log(alice_secret == bob_secret);

## crypto.pbkdf2(password, salt, iterations, keylen[, digest], callback)#

Asynchronous PBKDF2 function. Applies the selected HMAC digest function (default: SHA1) to derive a key of the requested length from the password, salt and number of iterations. The callback gets two arguments: `(err, derivedKey)`.

Example:

    crypto.pbkdf2('secret', 'salt', 4096, 512, 'sha256', function(err, key) {
      if (err)
        throw err;
      console.log(key.toString('hex'));  // 'c5e478d...1469e50'
    });

You can get a list of supported digest functions with crypto.getHashes().

## crypto.pbkdf2Sync(password, salt, iterations, keylen[, digest])#

Synchronous PBKDF2 function. Returns derivedKey or throws error.

## crypto.randomBytes(size[, callback])#

Generates cryptographically strong pseudo-random data. Usage:

    // async
    crypto.randomBytes(256, function(ex, buf) {
      if (ex) throw ex;
      console.log('Have %d bytes of random data: %s', buf.length, buf);
    });

    // sync
    try {
      var buf = crypto.randomBytes(256);
      console.log('Have %d bytes of random data: %s', buf.length, buf);
    } catch (ex) {
      // handle error
      // most likely, entropy sources are drained
    }

NOTE: This will block if there is insufficient entropy, although it should normally never take longer than a few milliseconds. The only time when this may conceivably block is right after boot, when the whole system is still low on entropy.

## Class: Certificate#

The class used for working with signed public key & challenges. The most common usage for this series of functions is when dealing with the `<keygen>` element. http://www.openssl.org/docs/apps/spkac.html

Returned by `crypto.Certificate`.

### Certificate.verifySpkac(spkac)#

Returns true of false based on the validity of the SPKAC.

### Certificate.exportChallenge(spkac)#

Exports the encoded public key from the supplied SPKAC.

### Certificate.exportPublicKey(spkac)#

Exports the encoded challenge associated with the SPKAC.

## crypto.publicEncrypt(public_key, buffer)#

Encrypts `buffer` with `public_key`. Only RSA is currently supported.

`public_key` can be an object or a string. If `public_key` is a string, it is treated as the key with no passphrase and will use `RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING`. Since RSA public keys may be derived from private keys you may pass a private key to this method.

`public_key`:

- `key` : A string holding the PEM encoded private key
- `passphrase` : An optional string of passphrase for the private key
- `padding` : An optional padding value, one of the following:
  - `constants.RSA_NO_PADDING`
  - `constants.RSA_PKCS1_PADDING`
  - `constants.RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING`

NOTE: All paddings are defined in `constants` module.

## crypto.publicDecrypt(public_key, buffer)#

See above for details. Has the same API as `crypto.publicEncrypt`. Default padding is `RSA_PKCS1_PADDING`.

## crypto.privateDecrypt(private_key, buffer)#

Decrypts `buffer` with `private_key`.

`private_key` can be an object or a string. If `private_key` is a string, it is treated as the key with no passphrase and will use `RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING`.

`private_key`:

- `key` : A string holding the PEM encoded private key
- `passphrase` : An optional string of passphrase for the private key
- `padding` : An optional padding value, one of the following:
  - `constants.RSA_NO_PADDING`
  - `constants.RSA_PKCS1_PADDING`
  - `constants.RSA_PKCS1_OAEP_PADDING`

NOTE: All paddings are defined in `constants` module.

## crypto.privateEncrypt(private_key, buffer)#

See above for details. Has the same API as `crypto.privateDecrypt`. Default padding is `RSA_PKCS1_PADDING`.

## crypto.DEFAULT_ENCODING#

The default encoding to use for functions that can take either strings or buffers. The default value is `'buffer'`, which makes it default to using Buffer objects. This is here to make the crypto module more easily compatible with legacy programs that expected `'binary'` to be the default encoding.

Note that new programs will probably expect buffers, so only use this as a temporary measure.

## Recent API Changes#

The Crypto module was added to Node.js before there was the concept of a unified Stream API, and before there were Buffer objects for handling binary data.

As such, the streaming classes don't have the typical methods found on other Node.js classes, and many methods accepted and returned Binary-encoded strings by default rather than Buffers. This was changed to use Buffers by default instead.

This is a breaking change for some use cases, but not all.

For example, if you currently use the default arguments to the Sign class, and then pass the results to the Verify class, without ever inspecting the data, then it will continue to work as before. Where you once got a binary string and then presented the binary string to the Verify object, you'll now get a Buffer, and present the Buffer to the Verify object.

However, if you were doing things with the string data that will not work properly on Buffers (such as, concatenating them, storing in databases, etc.), or you are passing binary strings to the crypto functions without an encoding argument, then you will need to start providing encoding arguments to specify which encoding you'd like to use. To switch to the previous style of using binary strings by default, set the `crypto.DEFAULT_ENCODING` field to 'binary'. Note that new programs will probably expect buffers, so only use this as a temporary measure.